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      "text": "The principle of net neutrality is partly based on the idea of 'common carriage,' a legal concept that has long roots in the common law.",
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      "text": "As technology advanced, the common calling expanded to include “common carriers,” particularly railroads, shipping lines, and other transportation organizations. One defining feature of common carriers, as opposed to common callings, is the up-front infrastructure investment that the former requires. Building a railroad requires massive amounts of start-up capital, time, and (typically) political goodwill. These factors make it difficult for competitors to enter the market, thus limiting both competition and consumer options. If someone wishes to travel but does not wish to pay a certain price for a train ticket, their options are limited. They may find alternative means of transport or choose not to go, but (except in the most exceptional circumstances) they cannot build themselves a railroad. Thus, railroads and other common carriers operate as “virtual monopol[ies]” (Wyman 1904, 161) and, though they are often private companies, they are “in the exercise of a sort of public office, [with] public duties to perform” (New Jersey Steam Navigation Co. v. Merchants’ Bank 1848, 47). As a result, their service should be agnostic with respect to the cargo (and people) they transport.",
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      "text": "Though the Internet shares features of common carriers, whether the Internet is considered a common carrier depends on national jurisdiction. Canadian policy, for example, is firmly behind the common carrier model, and the need to ensure all people have fair access to infrastructural services. Because of this political commitment to equal treatment of people, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), which assumed telecommunications control from a variety of bodies in 1968, strongly supports the equal treatment of the data those people communicate “regardless of its source or nature” (CRTC 2017, para. 3).9",
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      "text": "The principle of net neutrality is partly based on the idea of “common carriage,” a legal concept that has long roots in the common law. Common carriage speaks to the need to ensure infrastructural systems serve the interests of citizens in ways that are recognized and acknowledged as fair.",
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      "text": "Common carriage itself arose from the “common calling”: people engaged in what might be called public service professions, such as innkeepers, barbers, and farriers, could be found liable for refusing service to an individual without reasonable justification (Burdick 1911). Those with a common calling made a “general undertaking” to serve the public at large “in a workmanlike manner,” and any failure to do so left them open to legal action under the law of contract (Burdick 1911, 518).",
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      "text": "9 In the United States, debate over the Internet’s classification, whether as a common carrier or as a less-regulated “information service,” has raged for nearly two decades (Finley 2018). Across",
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      "text": "11.2.4 Common Carriage",
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