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      "text": "If exploitation is taking advantage of someone in an unfair or degrading way, and what enables exploitation is the exploitee's vulnerability, then identifying exploitation is partly an empirical exercise.",
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      "text": "Some argue that exploitation is wrong solely in virtue of one or another of these moral considerations – at bottom, it is either unfair or degrading – and such theorists have worked to show that certain cases intuitively cast in one moral frame can be explained equally well or better through another. For the present purposes, I follow theorists who adopt a more pluralistic approach and define wrongful exploitation as Matt Zwolinski (2012) does: taking advantage of someone in an unfair or degrading way.",
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      "text": "If exploitation is taking advantage of someone in an unfair or degrading way, and what enables exploitation – what induces someone to accept unfair terms of exchange or what makes taking advantage of such terms degrading – is the exploit-tee's vulnerability (the fact that they lack decent alternatives), then identifying exploitation is partly an empirical exercise. It requires asking, on a case-by-case basis: Are people vulnerable? What are their options? Are platforms taking advantage of them?",
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      "text": "A first question, then, is whether the kinds of practices I described at the start reflect these normative problems. Are platforms exploiting people?",
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      "text": "However, that need not prevent us from generalizing a little. Returning to the alleged abuses by gig economy companies, we can now recast them in this frame. Recall the FTC's concern that gig platforms set prices using \"non-transparent algorithms.\" Reporting on ethnographic work in California's gig-based ride hail industry, legal scholar Veena Dubal describes drivers struggling to understand how the prices they're paid for individual rides are set, why different drivers are paid different rates for similar rides, or how to increase their earnings. Not only because the algorithms powering ride-hail apps are opaque, but because they set prices dynamically: \"You've got it figured out, and then it all changes,\" one driver recounts (Dubal 2023, 1964). Using the language developed in Section 10.1, we can describe this opacity and dynamism as sources of procedural unfairness – whether the terms of exchange reached are fair or not, the process of reaching them is one in which drivers are disempowered relative to the gig platforms they are \"negotiating\" with.",
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      "text": "14 For an overview and argument in favor of a pluralist approach, see Snyder (2010). 15 Veena Dubal (2023). See also, Zephyr Teachout (2023). 16 Even describing the process as a negotiation is perhaps too generous – drivers simply have the option of accepting a ride and the designated fare or not.",
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      "text": "10.2 PLATFORM EXPLOITATION?",
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