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  "documentTitle": "Hydrogen applications and business models",
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  "notes": "Part 1 of 2 in a series on hydrogen production technologies.",
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      "text": "Blue hydrogen requires the combination of brown sources with CCS value chain (capture, transportation, storage, and/or usage of CO2), for which multiple technologies are available.",
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      "text": "Hydrogen value chain: upstream and midstream - Production technologies (Section 2.1: pages 27–48)",
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      "text": "Main brown/grey production sources are steam methane reforming (SMR), gasification, and autothermal reforming (ATR). In a Steam methane reforming reactor, natural gas is mixed with high-temperature steam and nickel catalysts in a endothermic reaction to form H2, CO and CO2, called a syngas. It requires 3 to 4 kg of CH4 per kg of H2 (about 65% of lower heating value efficiency). In a coal gasification reactor, O2 is added to the high-temperature combustion chamber in substoichiometric conditions, releasing syngas, tar vapors, and solid residues. About 8 kg of coal are required to produce 1 kg of H2 (70 to 80% LHV efficiency). Autothermal reforming combines both production methods, with a combustion and a catalytic zone within the same chamber, also releasing a syngas. It requires 2.5 to 3 kg of CH4/kgH2 (80% LHV efficiency).",
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      "text": "Blue hydrogen requires the combination of brown sources with CCS value chain (capture, transportation, storage, and/or usage of CO2), for which multiple technologies are available. Within the energy value chain, CCS applied for hydrogen production is considered as pre-combustion capture: carbon is removed from fossil fuel to create hydrogen. Following on-site capture, carbon can be transported through pipelines or ships and is later stored in underground geological storage (for example, depleted oil and gas fields). Carbon can also be used for further processes, such as chemical feedstock (for example, for methanol or liquid fuels synthesis), enhanced oil recovery (EOR), or agriculture. CCS can be deployed at different stages of the end-to-end production and purification process. Several technologies are available, such as amine capture or membrane separation.",
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      "text": "The syngas is a mixture of H2, CO, CO2, and other gases that can be used as is or purified. Syngas composition depends on reactor design and feedstock used. As H2 and CO are main syngas components, syngas quality is measured with H2/CO ratio in volumetric quantities. High ratio means high quantity of H2 in the syngas. Syngas can directly be consumed, such as for methanol synthesis or as a fuel. In other cases, purification is required. There are two main ways to purify syngas: - Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) purification: syngas first undergoes a water–gas shift reaction, where water steam is added to convert CO into CO2 and H2. CO2 is then removed and released through selective adsorption process. - Decarbonation and methanation purification: after a water–gas shift reaction, syngas undergoes decarbonation where amines are added to remove the majority of the CO and CO2. During methanation, the remaining CO and CO2 reacts with H2 to create CH4.",
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      "text": "Blue and green hydrogen sources offer potential decarbonization solutions, requiring either CCS deployment or use of renewables (1/2)",
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