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"x": 0.118, "y": 0.268 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "The Center for Global Education at Asia Society brings together leaders and institutions from around the world to tackle one of the most critical education challenges today: how to educate all students for employability and citizenship in a global era. Our mission is to develop global competence in students, young leaders, and educators as the foundation for understanding between people in the Asia Pacific region and throughout the world. 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Several Asia Society staff contributed to the development and support of this paper and the 21st century competencies working group, including Tony Jackson, Alexis Menten, Jessica Kehayes, Heather Loewecke, Heather Singmaster, and Apoorvaa Joshi.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:56.557+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "20a69b9e-0a7d-4295-b87e-09950c73ce1b", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.035, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.767 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "We thank the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation for its support of the development, publication, and dissemination of this paper.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:56.557+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "3c1b2c6d-96a1-4a0d-8754-1e77e6b8e3b1", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.135, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.125 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Asia Society is the leading educational organization dedicated to promoting mutual understanding and strengthening partnerships among peoples, leaders, and institutions of Asia and the United States in a global context. Founded in 1956 by John D. Rockefeller 3rd, Asia Society today is a global institution—with offices throughout the United States and Asia—that fulfills its educational mandate through a wide range of cross-disciplinary programming. Across the fields of arts, business, culture, education, and policy, the Society provides insight, generates ideas, and promotes collaboration to address present challenges and create a shared future.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:56.557+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "c16e9af3-3545-4319-838e-3080d1a4d96f", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.175, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.438 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Professor Kai-ming Cheng from the University of Hong Kong is the primary author of this paper. Professor Cheng assembled and led an international team of researchers who developed the case study reports on each country. We are grateful for the contributions of Kai-ming Cheng and Liz Jackson from the University of Hong Kong; Wing-on Lee from The Open University of Hong Kong; Daisuke Kimura and Madoka Tatsuno from Global Incubation x Fostering Talents (GiFT) in Japan; Jennifer Pei-Ling Tan, Elizabeth Koh, David Hung, Melvin Chan, and Pamela Onishi from the National Institute of Education at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore; Hyo-Jeong Kim and Jeongmin Eom from the Asia-Pacific Centre of Education for International Understanding (APCEIU) in South Korea; and Hsiao-Lan Sharon Chen and Hsuan-Yi Huang from the National Taiwan Normal University in Taiwan.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:56.557+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "c7d0d31c-9803-40e9-a679-8284719fda1c", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.055, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.621 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "At Asia Society, Alexis Menten directed the conception, development, and publication of the paper, in collaboration with the authors. We wish to thank Asia Society Senior Advisor Vivien Stewart for her invaluable guidance throughout the development of the paper.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:56.557+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "ed30f5b3-f859-4262-978d-b2405cd19883", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.021, "w": 0.165, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.092 }, "kind": "title", "text": "ASIA SOCIETY", "attrs": null, "canon": { 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The World has changed! Globalization, economy transformation, technology advancements, social disparity, generational difference, a rising China, .... have all contributed to a future which is volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Quote", "slug": "quote", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-f8fb-751e-8bc6-d58e2d59562a", "version": 1, "description": "Pull quote or testimonial." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Pull quote", "slug": "pull-quote", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fbf9-76fe-97e1-a0b7540445c9", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "pull-quote", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:55.812+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "6137e3fa-06ca-4844-810f-432256ceaf0e", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.027, "w": 0.766, "x": 0.117, "y": 0.888 }, "kind": "source-note", "text": "In some systems, the reform in education could be traced back to the 1980s. 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emphasis", "slug": "visual-emphasis", "status": "active", "bestFor": null, "canonId": "019dd9e1-474b-736b-a8eb-a794dd88241c", "version": 1, "bodyDocId": null, "description": "Drawing the eye to one element above the rest of the slide.", "familyLabel": null }, "subkind": null, "framework": null }, "subkind": null, "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-04-24 16:19:23+00", "model": "or:google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "019dd952-3409-704d-b4e1-d8bac5dbae10", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.285, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.303 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Although the report in this study refers mainly to basic education, the trend is also reflected in the sectors beyond basic education. Vocational education, for example, has experienced or is undergoing transformation, from training for specific skills to personal development (often still with reference to one or two specific jobs). This is particularly significant in Singapore and Hong Kong, where the vocational institutions are transformed into attractive institutions with state-of-the-art facilities, whole-person development programs, experiential learning projects, as well as overseas opportunities. In Singapore, there are special schools at the secondary level to cater to students with special talents in sports and arts, who are not necessarily strong in academic studies. In Taiwan, the traditional vocational schools have all been transformed into alternative types of higher education. There is also a dilution of vocation-specific education in Japan and South Korea. All these reflect the workplace reality—the rapid obsolescence of vocational skills, the frequent change of jobs and occupations, the instability of jobs, and the growth of the tertiary sector of the economy—which demands higher educational qualifications. At higher education levels, all reforms tend to increase the general education or common dimensions of the curriculum, in addition to specific professional knowledge.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 21:22:20.304+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "3f6ac4bb-a7b2-484c-8548-36e972e443a0", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.075, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.693 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "All the reform deliberations in the cases seem to reflect a profound knowledge of the science of learning. Three principles of the science of learning are particularly observable in the reforms: (a) students are active learners, (b) learning is achieved through experience, hence experiential learning (in the broad sense of the term) is required, and (c) different students may achieve differently and hence should be allowed diverse learning paths and diverse learning outcomes. Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong have all turned to the", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 21:22:20.304+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "5a99d9b0-c630-4a7d-9c87-530a76381421", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.075, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.093 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "of economic growth or global competitiveness at the society level, and employability at the individual level. There are still tangential mentions of such in the reform documents, but the rationale of reform has shifted from economic benefits to aspirations for the future of society. It is in this context that learning has taken center stage in these reforms. In a way, the reforms are trying to achieve a “learning shift,” as the Japan case study puts it.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 21:22:20.304+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "69763931-5f5b-4174-8480-750aa942f8d1", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.095, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.593 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Almost all the case studies mention two documents: the UNESCO Four Pillars of Learning—“Learning to Be, Learning to Know, Learning to Do, Learning to Live Together,” and the OECD DeSeCo Key Competencies, a sophisticated framework with broad categories of competencies related to “interacting in heterogeneous groups,” “acting autonomously,” and “using tools interactively,” referring to human relations, self, knowledge, and skills. Traces of influence from these frameworks could be found in each jurisdiction, either explicitly or implicitly, as well.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 21:22:20.304+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "868bba2b-5bea-4333-ae1a-690daaaf8714", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.125, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.173 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "It is visible in the case studies that the aspirations for young people have gone beyond expectations of the workplace, which is now understood to be only part of the challenge. This is made very explicit in the Japan case study: “Current proposed 21st century competencies [elsewhere] tend to focus on employability (and skillsets), but should pay more attention to personal attributes and formation of personal values.” This perhaps also explains why the notion of skills is less frequently mentioned, and even the use of the term “competencies” is under debate, because both of these refer to performances, presumably reflected in one’s work, rather than dispositions that are reflected in one’s mind.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 21:22:20.304+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "a3e4e7c8-6e01-4da0-a6a8-7f1b1f51d7e7", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.115, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.803 }, "kind": "source-note", "text": "5 In particular, about 15 years ago Taiwan phased out five-year vocational institutions, which ran from grades 13 to 17 (postsecondary).\n6 Typical examples are components of humanities in medical studies, and the non-engineering requirements in engineering studies (according to the Washington Accord, since 1998).\n7 Delors, J. (1996). Learning: The treasure within. Paris: UNESCO.\n8 The definition and selection of key competencies. A program conducted by OECD, published 2005.\n9 The National Science Foundation (US) has recently developed Educational Neuroscience to indicate the science of learning when applied to student learning.", "attrs": { "numbered": true }, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Source note", "slug": "source-note", "status": "active", "canonId": "23484952-494b-4a5e-b1ad-550d0d70e948", "version": 1, "description": "Attribution / source / caveat placed at the slide footer. 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In Hong Kong, a recent study of a random sample of 228 schools reveals an average of 9.8 projects per school of experiential learning, where schools partner with the business sector, NGOs, and other non-education bodies. One of", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:57.801+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "91f34eed-c91a-49ee-b127-0f82f3965195", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.165, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.228 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "The most obvious reform goal in all the jurisdictions is to facilitate students to become active learners. In Singapore, self-directed learners are one of the four major goals of the reform, symbolized in the “Teach Less, Learn More” title of one of the recent reforms. In the Japanese reforms, the emphasis is on active learning in interactive classrooms. Active learning is also a notion used to underlie Hong Kong’s earlier reforms and its most recent campaign. In the South Korean case, although the phrase “active learner” is not used, there is emphasis on developing independence, self-regulation, and self-management, which places students at the center of learning. As will be further discussed below, the concept of active learning is easily accepted in these societies, but is of particular importance where examination pressure prevails.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:57.801+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "9a5ede1a-f839-4b6f-98a5-77cbfdb4a2cb", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.135, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.093 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "science of learning in recent years. For example, there is a national effort in Singapore to capture the most recent findings from research on the science of learning. The most significant development, which is not covered in this study, is the creation of technologies for collaborative learning. There is a Center for the Science of Learning at the National Tsing Hua University in Taiwan with prominent researchers who work to translate the basics of the science of learning into effective pedagogies, and to actively disseminate them to teachers and parents.10 In Hong Kong, there are two networks of researchers focused on the science of learning, also emphasizing the translation of research into practice.11", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:57.801+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "9dd82b51-0701-4a3b-ade1-90575a4b0349", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.165, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.618 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "In a way, these systems of education are already known for their richness in extracurricular activities. It is not unusual, for example, to have 40–50 student clubs or associations in a school of 1,000 students in Hong Kong, and there are also numerous student activities in the other education systems in this study. So where is the reform? The reform is to reposition these activities as learning experiences that are essential for the holistic growth of the students. Hence, these activities are no longer taken for granted as “extra.” Space, time, and resources have to be allocated, teachers’ roles in these activities have to be redefined, more activities (e.g., service learning) have to be designed, the curriculum has to be restructured, and the assessment of such learning outcomes has to be totally reconceived.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:57.801+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "a15ede26-6c98-4616-a09a-08e302074ce3", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.225, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.393 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Experiential learning is another major theme and essential element in all of the reforms. As is made explicit in the Hong Kong reforms, the distinction between competencies and attributes not only is a conceptual matter, but also pertains to different modes of learning. In the Hong Kong perspective, knowledge and skills are learned mostly through the formal curriculum, and are now also learned individually through other media. Attributes, which refer to attitudes, interpersonal relations, sense of responsibility, and so forth, can be learned only through experiences, or through experiential learning12 in the broad sense of the term. This is echoed implicitly in all the other systems, where extracurricular activities and out-of-school experiences are emphasized. The related curriculum reforms all aim at compression of disciplinary learning in order to give way to experiential learning. This is the case in Japan (reduction of 30% of the formal curriculum), Singapore (33% reduction), and Hong Kong (reduction of formal curriculum to four key learning areas).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:57.801+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "bbfa7d92-4250-4383-b262-205c516e60fc", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.105, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.845 }, "kind": "source-note", "text": "10 Professor Daisy Hung and Professor Ovid Zheng, both prominent neuroscientists, lead a team on dissemination of the science of learning to non-academics.\n11 There is a campus-wide Strategic Research Theme of the Science of Learning at the University of Hong Kong, which comprises more than 60 members who work on learning in different disciplines. It is closely associated with NSF (US). Most recently, a team was established on educational neuroscience at the Hong Kong Education University.\n12 “Experiential learning” is sometimes given a specific definition, such as learning experiences with a structured design. Here it is used in the broad sense of the term to indicate all learning through experience, or “learning by doing.”", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Source note", "slug": "source-note", "status": "active", "canonId": "23484952-494b-4a5e-b1ad-550d0d70e948", "version": 1, "description": "Attribution / source / caveat placed at the slide footer. 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In the school tradition in the past, school report cards have special boxes for conduct and/or application, in addition to many other boxes or scores. Teachers are supposed to write narrative statements in these boxes, as an appraisal of the student’s performance in the affective domain. Following such a tradition, there are rarely discussions about learning outcomes in this domain. Appraisal of such learning seldom enters the formula of scores or grades. In other words, the appraisal of learning in the affective domain is about “what they do” rather than “what they know,” and is appraised in a way but is not measured quantitatively.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:57.403+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "45b5c996-5a06-40cd-aea3-6aa87d59b50d", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.185, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.684 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "For example, in almost all these societies under study, there is an emphasis on project-based learning, which requires students to define their own objectives, plan their own activities, sometimes in groups, and present their results to a larger audience. Although more common in Western systems of education, until recently, such activities were rather rare in these systems of education under study. Hong Kong has included project-based learning as one of its four areas of emphasis in the last reform. Singapore has included “project learning” as a compulsory dimension of its university entrance A-level examinations. In Singapore, special technologies are designed to facilitate group collaboration on student-initiated projects. In the exam-free semester in South Korea, there is a requirement that students should be asked to design and plan their own study during that semester.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:57.403+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "a13f15a8-5404-4851-b1f8-bde4e4cb7f01", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.095, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.581 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Allowing for diverse learning outcomes among different students poses a challenge to these systems of education. In a culture that is comparatively collective in nature, conformity is perhaps a special feature of the school system. This is reinforced by another cultural characteristic: the emphasis on effort over innate ability. All of the reforms signify a readiness to do something to change the status quo and enable more personalized learning pathways and opportunities.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:57.403+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "a8029cb7-ea93-487c-a6de-2eb8b1e93b97", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.055, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.092 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "The major suggestions is to construct a “Big Education” platform to accommodate, facilitate, coordinate, and economize the mushrooming partnership projects between schools and the community organizations (both for-profit and non-profit organizations).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:57.403+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "bc3859ca-c147-49e2-b62b-1563e70f2e97", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.235, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.155 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "A general issue about learning beyond the formal curriculum is the matter of equity. Students from economically deprived families are often also deprived of resources to engage in learning experiences beyond schools. In Hong Kong, the recent initiative has discussed this, and hence one of the aims of the “Big Education” platform of school partners is to channel privileged resources to students of deprived families, as a matter of positive discrimination. The argument is that students of deprived families should not be doubly deprived of other learning opportunities, because the better-off students are able to enjoy such opportunities regardless of what schools do. The inequity is even greater, but it does not show in schools. In Taiwan, the civil society has advocated that innovation is the key to survive and succeed in the contemporary society, hence they pay special attention to the creative capability of deprived children, develop numerous programs to facilitate students’ innovative productions outside schools, and often see them through paths of success in such programs (e.g., through entrepreneurship).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:04:57.403+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "bc70f31d-ffcf-470e-94d4-029d7ad4575a", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.065, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.875 }, "kind": "source-note", "text": "13 The most convincing evidence-based argument on this observation is perhaps the work by Geert Hofstede, as represented in the classic G. Hofstede (1997), Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.\n14 A seminal work on this effort/ability dichotomy is H. W. Stevenson and J. W. Stigler (1992), The learning gap: Why our schools are failing and what we can learn from Japanese and Chinese education. New York: Touchstone.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Source note", "slug": "source-note", "status": "active", "canonId": "23484952-494b-4a5e-b1ad-550d0d70e948", "version": 1, "description": "Attribution / source / caveat placed at the slide footer. 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In Taiwan and Hong Kong, the reform framework refers to the traditional five dimensions...", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": null, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-07-17 03:40:07.872+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.5-flash", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "1020387b-bc24-4f7e-85fc-7c1033389cb1", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.17, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.122 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "It is noticeable that in almost all of the jurisdictions, there is not much new about how the reforms approach the development of knowledge and skills. 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In particular, teacher preparation is very much emphasized in almost all the reports. However, the implementation processes are not always explained in detail in the case studies. In Singapore and Hong Kong, the reforms are in theory “top-down,” as they are initiated and planned by the government. However, tremendous efforts were spent on training principles and preparing teachers for the reforms. In Singapore, where teachers are basically civil servants, there are structured teacher professional seminars and principals’ circles where plans of reform are implemented.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:04.048+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "0613bd72-9a3e-4594-975f-787da06bd4f3", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.115, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.835 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "An example is in Singapore, when the First Masterplan for ICT in Education was introduced in 1997. At that time, 60 expert teachers were invited to interact with Israeli experts for six months, so as to explore how IT could be integrated in pedagogy. Each teacher then disseminated what they had developed to six other schools. 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In South Korea, the overall ideal of education returned to Hongik Ingan (contributing to the overall benefit of humankind), which is the founding spirit of the first kingdom in Korean history. 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It must be acknowledged that all the systems have made tremendous efforts to ensure effective implementation, and the implementation measures are comprehensive.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:04.048+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "57403a84-16c1-433f-a8d2-02a2207fed24", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.175, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.308 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "These are major concerns among educators in particular and society at large in general. In the case of Taiwan and Hong Kong, political turmoil has caused political confrontation and an ideological split in the community. While a similar split is emerging in Japan, there are other concerns about young people who prefer to stay at home after leaving school. There are non-governmental organizations like Global Incubation x Fostering Talents (GiFT), which is devoted to advancing global citizenship among youth. In South Korea, there are concerns about bullying among young students. Perhaps with the exception of Singapore, there are also concerns about the number of student suicides. Instead of trying to fix the problem from a deficit model, the reforms take a positive attitude and aspire to cultivate among young people a service culture and a global outlook.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:04.048+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "5e623216-ba5f-48c8-b0cc-3c7a72fc44c5", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.115, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.185 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "It is also noticeable that in almost all the jurisdictions, there is always an element of service and a global outlook. As mentioned above, the South Korean reforms started with the tradition of “contributing to the welfare of humankind.” The Hong Kong initiative mentioned “knowledge of society, the nation and the world.” The Japan reform aims at “motivation for social participation” and “practical ability to act for the world.” The Taiwan reform places “common good” as one of the major goals, and aims at “multicultural and international understanding.”", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:04.048+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "60f1542a-8d88-40ae-9fe4-9f97b7a2cca0", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.085, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.585 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Fundamentally, the new role of students as active learners is accompanied by the changing role of teachers as facilitators of self-directed learning, coordinators of experiential learning, and mentors of youth development in the affective domain. 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As mentioned earlier, the Japan reform calls for a change of testing from “what students know” (knowledge acquisition) to “what they can do with the knowledge” (knowledge application). In other words, there has to be a shift from testing the substance of knowledge to testing the use of the knowledge. 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The first cycle was completed only in 2016. This continuity is perhaps because changes in government leadership did not affect education development very much, and Hong Kong is blessed in this respect. However, as the society continues to open up and suffer from political confrontations, it is not certain whether the context will become more favorable.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:07.702+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "002efbdd-9529-49a8-a460-6bda77af5233", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.145, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.091 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "admissions, and so forth. Education reform requires coordinated efforts within the government, so that it is not only the responsibility of the Education Ministry or its equivalent. Education development should be the concern of all sectors of society and requires an alliance of businesses, non-profit organizations, religious bodies, and political parties, among others.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:07.702+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "0a7f53e2-e9c3-4a4f-b996-0c076f6a29e0", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.335, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.508 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "It is noticeable that in these societies, the respective governments play different roles. This is a matter of the political system as well as the political culture. There are different expectations of the government in developing education, and the government takes on different functions. The study surveys a wide spectrum of governance among the jurisdictions as it relates to education. For example, Hong Kong and Singapore are both city-states with no sub-level governments. In both cases, education funding is from the central government. However, while all schools in Singapore are coordinated by the government, Hong Kong operates a school-based model where school sponsoring bodies, which are non-government voluntary agencies, exercise autonomy over their respective schools. Meanwhile, in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, there is local funding and local governance, but the Ministry of Education has a relatively high degree of regulation over the prefectures (or their equivalents) and over the schools. This demonstrates that regardless of the government capability and the administrative structure, there is always a way to move education forward.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:07.702+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "3a0aaa04-adbf-40ff-8630-0a01acc114e8", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.025, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.572 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Below are brief introductions to the case studies prepared by researchers in each of the five jurisdictions.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:07.702+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "527265d1-8b57-4715-8ea7-dfa646fc4adc", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.255, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.245 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "All of these aspirations seem rather difficult to achieve. However, this is exactly what the education systems in East Asia are trying to do. The progress may be incremental, and sometimes with setbacks, but there is a belief that the effort will pay off. In some ways, there is evidence it already has. Educators in all these societies would argue that their country's high performance in international comparisons such as PISA, TIMSS, and PIRLS is due to recent reforms that have shifted away from the traditional pedagogy. Indeed, in most of these societies, despite all kinds of ups and downs in reforms, there have been incremental but significant changes in education in the past decade or two to move away from rote learning and meaningless memorization.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:07.702+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "679693ff-1fcc-4885-8bfe-cc93edd7b1d0", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.085, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.745 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "It is also noticeable that the discourse of the last reform and recent initiatives do not hinge on an economic discourse. The concepts of global competitiveness (of the whole society) and employability (of individuals) are not part of the rhetoric of reform. They are only implicit, and have given way to a much broader concept of change in society. This was made more explicit in the recent initiative (Education 2.1).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:07.702+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "8e4651de-bbe5-4b79-a2f0-85cdf0e56f00", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.045, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.835 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Unlike the other country cases in this research, Hong Kong did not start with a delineation of an aspired individual person. It started with the concept of learning and tried to create room for more diverse learning.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:07.702+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "bea6f32c-7377-4586-b504-2cc898ec00a8", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.03, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.885 }, "kind": "source-note", "text": "Hong Kong is not a state. It is part of China under the “one country, two systems” arrangement. However, Hong Kong has its own Basic Law and is a separate jurisdiction.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Source note", "slug": "source-note", "status": "active", "canonId": "23484952-494b-4a5e-b1ad-550d0d70e948", "version": 1, "description": "Attribution / source / caveat placed at the slide footer. 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This is partly because of the demands of teaching, but also because of the administrative burden. Similar to all the other systems under study, teachers stay late at schools in Japan. The statistics about teachers’ increased overtime hours are alarming, but perhaps are representative of teachers’ lives in the region.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:06.111+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "12f1a10d-0f21-4214-b054-bb6f0bd4a316", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.115, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.121 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "The Japanese system seemed to demonstrate a very early awareness of the necessity for change. There have been many waves of reform, and various committees established, at different times in history. The most recent education reform, “Zest for Life,” which began in 1996 and embodied the Japanese conceptions of 21st century competencies, demonstrates how traditional cultural factors, dating back to the Meiji restoration, influenced the heavy emphasis on the affective domain of learning to meet the needs of contemporary society. It is a return to the basics of chi-toku-tai, or intellectual, moral, and physical dimensions.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:06.111+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "17048845-ebd7-41f3-b0cb-0a3d8a59de2e", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.173, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.483 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "However, a survey of the implementation of these competencies and associated pedagogies showed that while they are fairly widespread in elementary and junior high schools, they are not in upper secondary or high schools. Similar to almost all the other systems under study, the major obstacle to reform in the curriculum and pedagogy is the university entrance examination, which has not changed for many years. In Japan, the mainstream test is used by 75% of universities and colleges. As is reported, the tests are very traditional, consisting of mostly multiple-choice questions, which encourages rote learning. Hence, against the intentions of the reform, the National Center Test tests the quantity of knowledge rather than the depth of understanding, let alone the use of the knowledge. There are now plans to change the university entrance examination to include a greater focus on critical thinking in order to drive more reform.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:06.111+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "1fd12f1b-e99e-47c7-9c8b-788d5cc43033", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.104, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.367 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "The Course of Study in Japan is a comprehensive framework that encompasses aims, objectives, curriculum content, pedagogy, and assessments. According to the case study on Japan, the basic principles in the revised Course of Study have been integrated into subject syllabuses and the pedagogy. Hence, the Course of Study provides a very powerful vehicle and tool to steer education in the direction of 21st century competencies. The Japan case study illustrates how the course of study combined with extensive teacher professional development on “active learning” pedagogies has moved 21st century competencies from the system level into classrooms.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:06.111+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "6cd937b1-3b0f-4050-a59c-c4f62f50375e", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.069, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.286 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Japan operates a relatively centralized system of education. The government authority governs the overall structure and human resources of schools. However, it is centralized not in the sense of control, but more in the sense of uniformity. Schools in Japan each have their own character and style, but schools follow more or less the same curriculum and the same pattern of operations.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:05:06.111+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "8d02c7cf-8e0d-412f-ada8-785415cb8cf5", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.104, "w": 0.764, "x": 0.118, "y": 0.749 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "A point about technology: The Japanese case demonstrates an attitude toward technology that could be representative of the entire cultural group of East Asian education systems. In the expectations articulated for students, ICT literacy is listed as parallel to language literacy and numeracy. This is a typical perception about technology, which is taken for granted as a basic competency. 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The public examinations are double-edged. On the one hand, any change in the examination, either in the content or in the assessment methods, may be used to steer reforms in pedagogy. 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