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Introduction... 2\n2. A brief review of the current state of education in Africa... 3\n3. What do earlier syntheses say about education in Africa?... 5\n4. Methods... 5\n4.1 Inclusion criteria... 5\n4.2 Search strategy... 6\n4.3 Analytical strategy... 6\n4.4 The studies... 7\n5. Results... 7\n5.1 Teachers and pedagogy... 9\n5.2 Inputs... 13\n5.3 Financing... 16\n5.4 Other topics... 18\n6. Discussion... 22\n6.1 What we learn... 22\n6.2 What we still need to learn... 23\n6.3 Applying research findings to policy... 24\n7. 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From 1970 to 2010, the percentage of children across the region who complete primary school rose by almost 50 percent (from 46 percent of children to 68 percent). The proportion of children completing lower secondary school nearly doubled (from 22 percent to 40 percent). Despite these massive gains, nearly one in three children still do not complete primary school. Efforts to measure the quality of that schooling have revealed high numbers of students who have limited literacy or numeracy skills even after several years of school. The international community has characterized this situation as a “learning crisis”. 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Our analysis reveals two trends. First, we observe growing sophistication in evaluating education programs in Africa. An increasing number of studies examine not only whether a given intervention is effective but also test multiple permutations. Evaluations are also testing alternative combinations of interventions, such as teacher incentives, school grants, or the combination of the two in Tanzania. Other studies compare alternative programs to achieve a common goal, as in education subsidies versus the government HIV curriculum to reduce sexually transmitted infections. Testing multiple treatments is certainly not unprecedented in African countries, but it is growing more common. 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Programs adapted to new contexts will often yield distinct impacts. In our discussion section, we elaborate on factors to consider when translating a program from one setting to another. Still, this accumulation of recent evidence offers promising areas for investment and wide avenues for further study.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.113+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "285788e0-2ec2-418c-8acc-b9e387d42b20", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.07, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.71 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Education in Africa has expanded dramatically in recent years (Figures 1 and 2). The median proportion of children completing primary school across countries has risen from 27 to 67 between 1971 and 2015 (World Bank, 2020). The median proportion of children completing lower secondary school across countries has also risen dramatically, from a mere 5 percent in", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.113+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "3f3e115a-865b-49ac-93c7-42d560e1fdc9", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.11, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.44 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "This review updates findings from earlier reviews with results from new research. Evans and Popova (2016b) synthesize evidence from six reviews on how to improve learning outcomes from low- and middle-income countries, only one of which—Conn (2017)—focuses exclusively on evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa, while others include significant research from the region. This review focuses on how research in Africa from the last five years updates our ideas on making education effective and accessible.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.113+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "43e2ef6d-3a05-47c7-8545-3c36721dbdad", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.16, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.17 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "We also observe consistent gains across various other types of programs: mother tongue instruction seems to provide consistent learning gains across programs, eliminating school fees offers consistent gains in access, and school feeding offers consistent gains in access and learning. Other inputs are inconsistent: cash transfers are reasonably consistent in increasing access to school but not at improving learning, which may be unsurprising given that the programs may relax an economic constraint to access for the children but do not directly affect the learning process beyond that. Similarly, eliminating school fees has inconsistent impacts on the quality of education.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.113+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "48823328-41d6-4325-970c-8e82309cb3d7", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.09, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.56 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "In section 2, we briefly review the current state of education in Africa. In section 3, we summarize earlier evidence on how to expand access and improve the quality of education on the continent. In section 4, we discuss our strategy for collecting and analyzing new research. In section 5, we synthesize the findings. In section 6, we draw conclusions from our findings, highlight areas for needed future research, and discuss implications for policy.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.113+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "87efc09a-6a55-42d2-a571-15230b75f0ca", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.07, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.09 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "education interventions (Kraft, 2020; Evans and Yuan 2020). A literacy program providing a similar array of supports delivered literacy gains in Uganda (Brunette et al., 2019). The combination of teacher incentives and school grants delivered higher learning gains than either on its own in Tanzania (Mbiti et al., 2019a).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.113+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "9134cac4-4a29-4412-9587-443e504c85c4", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.03, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.85 }, "kind": "source-note", "text": "6 Lacking access to time travel technology, Evans and Popova (2016b) actually review an earlier version of the Conn work (2014) but the results of Conn's analysis do not change across the two versions.", "attrs": { "numbered": true }, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Source note", "slug": "source-note", "status": "active", "canonId": "23484952-494b-4a5e-b1ad-550d0d70e948", "version": 1, "description": "Attribution / source / caveat placed at the slide footer. 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These are enormous increases: they also demonstrate just how far there is to go. Nearly one in three children in the median country do not complete primary school, and three in five fail to complete lower secondary.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:41.417+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "a3eccf83-598c-48de-be13-47acd8f927fe", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.35, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.34 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "At the same time, education quality in Africa also suffers. Recent evidence across seven countries in Sub-Saharan Africa found that in third grade, less than two in three children could read a letter, and only about half of children could read a word.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:41.417+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "b5d8271a-881f-4dd3-9442-ed4812d0bc41", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.1, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.82 }, "kind": "source-note", "text": "7 We use the median rate across countries because education policy decisions are made at the country level. 8 An assessment of student test scores in Nigeria reports that only 17 percent of the students meet the minimum literacy competency benchmark.", "attrs": { "numbered": true }, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Source note", "slug": "source-note", "status": "active", "canonId": "23484952-494b-4a5e-b1ad-550d0d70e948", "version": 1, "description": "Attribution / source / caveat placed at the slide footer. 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Bashir et al. (2018) provide a comprehensive descriptive analysis of the current state of education across the continent...", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:41.534+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "5e64e96d-164c-495e-ab9c-9b692a875430", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.04, "w": 0.65, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.88 }, "kind": "source-note", "text": "9 Snilstveit et al. (2016) provide a manageable summary of Snilstveit et al. (2015), which comes in at more than 850 pages.", "attrs": { "numbered": true }, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Source note", "slug": "source-note", "status": "active", "canonId": "23484952-494b-4a5e-b1ad-550d0d70e948", "version": 1, "description": "Attribution / source / caveat placed at the slide footer. 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In order to answer these questions, we reviewed the title, abstract, and full text of the papers to extract and code the following data...", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.949+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "082de6aa-2b1b-4b1e-be42-5a3d22c4115e", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.35, "w": 0.648, "x": 0.176, "y": 0.31 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "We began by compiling a database of papers that complied with the above criteria from published systematic reviews... 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School-system interventions usually aim to increase students' enrollment and retention, and improve the quality of the learning environment. These interventions are (i)", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:42.409+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "94cb1bb6-4ded-4a15-95ee-e6edf222c806", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.115, "w": 0.65, "x": 0.175, "y": 0.612 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "The collection of studies reveals interesting findings on what is studied and where. We identify a high concentration of studies in Kenya (41 studies) and Uganda (21) with fewer but still significant numbers of studies in Ethiopia (17), Ghana (15), Nigeria (13), and Tanzania (13) (Figure 6). Most studies we identify focus on primary education (61 percent), and almost a quarter of studies examine secondary education (24 percent). Fewer studies examine pre-primary (8 percent), with just a handful examining tertiary, adult education or technical-vocational training (6 percent and under each) (Figure 7).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:42.409+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "ffc7cbaa-c9ee-4c33-8803-674ba511a591", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.025, "w": 0.65, "x": 0.175, "y": 0.88 }, "kind": "source-note", "text": "10 Evans and Popova (2016b) provide a detailed description of the advantages and disadvantages of different review methodologies.", "attrs": { "numbered": true }, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Source note", "slug": "source-note", "status": "active", "canonId": "23484952-494b-4a5e-b1ad-550d0d70e948", "version": 1, "description": "Attribution / source / caveat placed at the slide footer. 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The household-level interventions usually aim to reduce the economic and social barriers that keep households from sending their children to school – providing cash transfers, providing low-cost early child development care centers, and providing learning and attendance information to parents.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.397+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "4cb2925c-a570-4277-b45b-755fc0dd788e", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.08, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.8 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "In addition to the 19 percent of studies that evaluate national policies, almost half of the studies evaluate the impact of a single treatment. The other 35 percent have multiple treatment arms (Table 5). 28 studies evaluate two treatment arms, 17 studies test three treatment arms, and six studies test four or more treatment arms. One outlier, Haushofer and Shapiro (2016) randomized cash transfers to gender of the recipient, frequency of", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.397+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "6b4b07af-d842-437c-a598-8dd6596bd2da", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.26, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.31 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "A significant number of studies were implemented through government channels (Table 2). In addition to the 19 percent of studies that examined national policy reforms (such as free primary education), 46 percent of the 145 studies partnered with government agencies, most often the ministry of education for school construction, teacher trainings, or incentive policies, the ministry of health for school feeding, or the relevant government agency for cash transfers. 40 percent of the studies in our sample worked with non-government organizations such as BRAC, the World Food Programme, the Aga Khan Foundation, or Twaweza. A smaller number (17 studies) worked with private partners such as for-profit schools, clinics, or educational companies. About 15 percent of the studies did not employ any implementing partner aside from the research teams themselves. Some of these researcher-only studies evaluated smaller, less intensive interventions (e.g., a specific pedagogical technique). More than half of the interventions were evaluated using randomized controlled trials (58 percent of studies); the next most common empirical method was difference-in-differences (25 percent), which was the most common method for evaluating national policies.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.397+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "755f4ac1-ff37-49f4-a41c-a3c3d808632f", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.02, "w": 0.01, "x": 0.49, "y": 0.93 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "8", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.397+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "bd945f42-a0ce-4570-86d5-e61ffb3f1bda", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.09, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.7 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "In terms of scale, 27 of our 145 studies evaluate national reform policies. For studies that are not national in scale and that report schools as treatment units, we find an average treatment group size of 96 schools (median: 66 schools). There are some larger studies: the 90th percentile includes 211 treated schools (Carneiro et al., 2016). Table 4 shows the average treatment group size for studies reporting other treatment units such as districts, communities, or individuals.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.397+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "c27e995c-501a-4b62-9bb6-cf1e5b02758c", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.11, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.58 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "A limited number of studies offer cost information (Table 3). Two out of five studies in our sample have no cost analysis at all. About one quarter provide a full cost-effectiveness analysis, and the others provide limited information on costs, usually only the cost of one specific input, such as a stipend for the trainer or the value of a voucher provided to students. 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Several recent studies suggest that mother tongue instruction has positive impacts on children's ability to subsequently learn a second language in Cameroon (Laitin et al., 2019), Ethiopia (Seid, 2019), and South Africa (Taylor and von Fintel, 2016). However, Piper et al. (2018c) find the effect is not as strong: students taught in mother-tongue do not perform any better in English and perform worse in mathematics compared to students taught in a non-mother tongue.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.198+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "0ce2b83a-261b-4ec8-acc3-19abe8ca82d9", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.15, "w": 0.65, "x": 0.175, "y": 0.45 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Mother tongue instruction usually refers to teaching students basic skills in a language that they already know when they arrive at school. In many African countries, the historical norm has been to teach children in a colonial language (e.g., English, French, or Portuguese), even though most children arrive at school with little or no ability in that language. Most earlier syntheses have little or nothing to say about mother tongue instruction, but evidence has grown dramatically in recent years (Appendix Table 3). Teaching children to read in a language they speak at home increased the rate at which children learn to read in Cameroon (Laitin et al., 2019), Kenya (Piper et al., 2016c), and Uganda (Brunette et al., 2019; Kerwin and Thornton, 2020).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.198+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "2353daf1-7085-4b99-97ad-090080c952fb", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.15, "w": 0.65, "x": 0.175, "y": 0.178 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "We review the studies in four broad categories. Studies in the first group focus on what happens in the classroom and on policies around the person who manages the classroom—the teacher. These include studies on mother tongue instruction, structured pedagogy, and policies around teacher pay, teacher professional development, and accountability. Studies in the second group focus on a variety of inputs: school feeding, education technology, school construction, and other inputs. Studies in the third group focus on financing: cash transfers, school grants, and the elimination of school fees. Studies in the fourth and final group focus on three other topics: early child education, for which there has been little experimental or quasi-experimental evidence in Africa in the past, but for which that literature is growing; girls’ education; and public-private partnerships.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.198+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "e8a18f0a-a778-4d7b-a3c0-5dc857a68949", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.05, "w": 0.65, "x": 0.175, "y": 0.85 }, "kind": "source-note", "text": "11 Mother tongue instruction can also be used to refer to teaching children their mother tongue (e.g., formalizing knowledge of a language spoken from childhood). That is not how we use the term here. 12 Brunette et al. (2019) examined interventions in 12 different mother tongues and found positive, significant impacts for three quarters of them.", "attrs": { "numbered": true }, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Source note", "slug": "source-note", "status": "active", "canonId": "23484952-494b-4a5e-b1ad-550d0d70e948", "version": 1, "description": "Attribution / source / caveat placed at the slide footer. 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Brunette et al. (2019), already discussed in the context of mother tongue instruction, evaluated a program that not only encouraged mother tongue instruction in 12 different mother tongue languages but also provided teacher training, detailed teachers' guides, textbooks for pupils, and feedback from school leaders, resulting in sizeable literacy gains.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.611+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "188cfc83-fac9-4ae0-a8a7-c72b9038e067", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.05, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.09 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Finally, there is some evidence of impact beyond literacy. In Ethiopia, where mother tongue instruction reforms took place in 1994, researchers have identified long-term impacts on educational attainment and civic engagement (Ramachandran, 2017; Seid, 2017).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.611+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "2409ef33-1dd1-4e4d-b239-66e3e6c1ee22", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.13, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.79 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Because teachers play such an instrumental role in students' education, recent evidence on high rates of absenteeism and low levels of pedagogical and content knowledge suggest that better teacher policies may be useful to boost education outcomes (Bold et al., 2017; Mbiti, 2016). There is no general pattern in the level of teacher pay relative to comparable professions across Africa (Evans et al., 2020). There is evidence of a premium to civil service teachers relative to private school teachers (Barton et al. 2017). A new generation of evidence has arisen on bonus payments for teachers based on student performance. Earlier", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.611+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "7cd3876e-3af3-427d-a850-715cc8cfe717", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.25, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.19 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Recent years have also shown growing rigorous evidence for approaches to improve literacy that incorporate a range of elements (see Appendix Table 4). Piper et al. (2014 and 2015) used a randomized controlled trial to evaluate a literacy program in Kenya that included teacher professional development, the provision of textbooks for students (including textbooks in Kiswahili), the provision of structured teacher guides for teachers, and classroom observation and feedback to teachers, among other elements. The program led to sizeable literacy gains. Seeking to isolate the most important elements of the program, Piper et al. (2018b) find that structured teacher guides are the most cost-effective element of the program. The program was effective at boosting literacy for low-income students (Piper et al., 2015). The program was subsequently scaled up nationally and continued to demonstrate literacy gains (Piper et al., 2018a). Similarly, a mathematics-focused version of the program provided teacher guides and teacher professional development training and yielded statistically significant improvements in test scores (Piper et al. 2016a).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.611+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "e5e6412a-cf95-447a-bec9-9bf1cdcfd965", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.09, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.59 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Beyond these literacy interventions, many interventions seek to improve the quality of teaching particular skills using a particular method, such as using graphics (like Venn diagrams) in teaching to improve prose comprehension among secondary school students in Nigeria (Uba et al., 2017). These studies are of value mostly to others seeking to improve the teaching of these specific skills; as such, they are summarized in the appendix but not discussed at length here.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.611+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "fc623aa1-3317-4877-a3a1-f3443d791b17", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.02, "w": 0.18, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.16 }, "kind": "title", 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In Tanzania, researchers tested two alternative incentive designs – one, a pay-for-percentile system where a teacher's bonus is based on students' ranks against other students with similar baseline scores, and the other program, where a teacher's bonus is based on students achieving benchmark proficiency levels, which the authors argue is easier to implement and gives teachers clearer targets. Both designs boosted test scores, but the latter program had larger impacts at a lower cost (Mbiti et al., 2019b).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.995+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "0de28aea-4106-4b53-be82-cc12256a19e1", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.05, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.09 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "evidence on performance pay for teachers in Africa was limited and mixed: a randomized trial in Kenya showed that performance bonuses for students increased test scores on the exams directly linked to the incentives, but not on general exams (Glewwe et al., 2010).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.995+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "1cbfbcf5-f861-4c99-b010-57021bab312b", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.26, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.64 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Recent evaluations have also shown impacts from non-remunerative accountability interventions. In Côte d'Ivoire, providing twice-a-week text messages to either parents or teachers reduced dropout by between 2 and 2.5 percentage points (about 50 percent of the dropout rate in control schools). Texting both parents and teachers resulted in a much smaller, statistically insignificant impact. For low-attendance teachers, all three treatments had positive impacts (Lichand and Wolf 2020). In Tanzania, a low-stakes nationwide program that simply published school performance on primary school leaving exams led to more students passing the exam among schools that initially performed poorly. However, in an example of how even a low-stakes intervention can also adversely affect behaviors, the program also increased dropouts (Cilliers et al., 2020c). In Niger, a low-stakes, randomized intervention that complemented regular class inspections with phone calls to the village chief, the teacher, and two randomly selected students to check on whether adult education classes were being held and how they were going led to improved student learning (Aker and Ksoll, 2019).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.995+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "3e3bbe29-c605-4370-b343-6893a96a3f3b", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.02, "w": 0.02, "x": 0.49, "y": 0.94 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "11", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.995+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "52717657-7115-4ab2-8556-0301a12eb4a5", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.35, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.15 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "A new generation of studies adds much more to our knowledge base (Appendix Table 5). All these new pay-for-performance programs take place in primary schools. In one study in Tanzania, performance-based bonuses to teachers had positive impacts on student learning in only one of the two tests administered, but when those bonuses were coupled with school grants, students performed consistently better in both tests and across all subjects (Mbiti et al., 2019a). Schools that received grants alone showed no performance gains. Teachers also support these programs in Tanzania, both in theory and in practice, reporting higher levels of satisfaction in schools that have performance pay (Mbiti and Schipper, 2020). In Rwanda, a novel experimental design separates the impact of performance pay on recruitment and on effort and finds favorable effects on both, with a significant net increase in student test scores (Leaver et al., 2019). A pay-for-performance program in Uganda had test score impacts only for the subset of students who attended schools that had books, although it did reduce dropout rates, which were not directly incentivized by the program (Gilligan et al., 2019). In Kenya, using contracts that are renewable based on performance to hire teachers also boosted student learning (Duflo et al., 2015a), an effort to scale up those contracts nationwide did not result in learning gains, potentially due to a combination of political opposition, reduced monitoring, and delayed salaries (Bold et al., 2018).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:43.995+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "a682ddf3-bc8e-44b5-a35e-8c4f26f5ca02", "parentComponentId": null } ], "metrics": [], "tools": [ { "tool": { "name": "Analytical method", "slug": "analytical-method", "status": "active", "bestFor": null, "canonId": "b42c4911-7946-49b5-951c-5f3d23f4e2bd", "version": 1, "bodyDocId": null, "description": "Diagnostic / structuring methods (5-whys, fishbone, issue tree, hypothesis-driven).", "familyLabel": null, "categoryName": null, "categorySlug": null }, "agent": null, "layer": "slide", "agents": null, "matchId": "be9bea5d-79c7-4798-82ee-63439c363d60", "evidence": "New studies are exploring the nuances of how to implement these programs. 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This pattern is consistent with earlier evidence suggesting more consistently positive impacts of education technology interventions in low- or middle-income countries than in high-income countries (Bulman and Fairlie, 2016). However, most of the technology evaluated in the studies are used in school settings, with more stable access to electricity and internet connectivity (with the exception of e-readers that students can take home). 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Recent studies bolster this (Appendix Table 8). In Burkina Faso, a program to construct schools improved enrollment, attendance, and student learning both seven and ten years after the program (Ingwersen et al., 2019; Kazianga et al., 2019).16 A similar program in Niger also boosted enrollment and learning (Bagby et al., 2016). These programs of course will be most effective when there are few schools: a school construction program in Benin boosted enrollment principally in rural areas (Deschênes and Hotte, 2019). Furthermore, the Burkina Faso program led young women to put off marriage and childbearing (Ingwersen et al., 2019), and the Benin program reduced tolerance of domestic violence (Deschênes and Hotte, 2019). Ashraf et al. (2020b) find that school construction benefitted girls’ education in Zambia only among ethnic groups with a bride price tradition. 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In Kenya, randomly selected parents of young children received either children’s storybooks or storybooks with training on how to read the storybooks with children (Knauer et al. 2020). 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Blimpo et al. (2019a) also compare children who attended preschools that were randomly assigned to receive intensive teacher training, finding much higher language skills in children attending those schools. Morabito et al. (2018) evaluate children randomly assigned to high-quality versus low-quality preschools: they find no average effect on test scores, although there is evidence that high-quality preschool has a positive impact for children with poorly educated fathers (compensating for inequality) and a negative impact for children with poorly educated mothers (reinforcing inequality). Four other interventions trained early child education providers—in Ghana, Kenya, and Malawi—and were discussed in section 5.1.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.845+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "74e0a956-4c60-4860-a472-e12a5ef64735", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.45, "w": 0.66, "x": 0.17, "y": 0.09 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "income countries stems from Latin America and do not identify a single paper that predates 2015 in Africa. Since then, several studies have come out, most of which examine the impact of access to early child education (Appendix Table 13). Martinez et al. (2017) use a randomized controlled trial to estimate the impact of community-based preschools in Mozambique and find that enrolled children are much more likely to be in primary school at the right age and that their test scores are higher, with larger effects for children from poorer households. Bietenbeck et al. (2019) take advantage of the expansion of pre-primary education in Kenya and Tanzania to compare siblings with access to siblings without; they find that children with access to preschool education are more likely to be in primary school, more likely to have advanced, and have moderately higher scores on cognitive tests (0.10 standard deviations). Aunio et al. (2019)—with a simple cross-sectional regression approach and the selection challenges that entails—find a significant, positive correlation between kindergarten attendance and later numeracy skill in South Africa, even when controlling for other current skills (language and executive function). Krafft (2015) compares siblings with and without access to early child education in Egypt and finds that access translates to an additional year of total schooling. Woldehanna and Araya (2017) use an instrumental variables approach with Young Lives data in Ethiopia and find that preschool attendees in urban areas are 25 percent more likely to have completed secondary education than non-attendees. Finally, Blimpo et al. 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Wamalwa and Burns (2018) compare public school versus private school siblings within the same household (i.e., household fixed effects) in Kenya and identify literacy and numeracy gains in attending private schools. Despite efforts to gauge the potential extent of bias, the challenge remains of unobserved child characteristics determining whether a child is sent to private or public school. Also in Kenya, Zuilkowski et al. (2020) compare student scores over two academic years in low-cost private schools and government schools in Nairobi and find that, in general, the low-cost private schools do not produce better student outcomes over time. However, private schools yielded more learning gains when they received an instructional improvement intervention than did public schools. Lipcan et al. (2018) compare test scores, costs, and management practices across public and private schools in Lagos, Nigeria, and find that one international chain of private schools has higher student test scores relative to other private schools and public schools in literacy and relative to public schools only in mathematics. Adjusting for a set of observed student characteristics reduces the gains by a small amount. The authors make no claim to causality, as unobserved characteristics of students may still play a role in the results. A third study does not find any differences in management practices between public and private schools in Uganda, although it does find a significant association between the quality of management and student performance overall (Crawfurd, 2017). Two randomized controlled trials examine the impact of public-private partnerships, one for primary schools in Liberia and another for secondary schools in Uganda. In Liberia, the management of 93 randomly selected schools was delegated to one of eight different private organizations (Romero et al., 2020). Government teachers taught in both publicly and privately managed schools, but privately managed schools received more funding, and some raised additional funding independently. Ultimately, the privately managed schools achieved significantly higher test scores but at a significantly higher cost per student. In general, management of teachers was better at privately managed schools, but one chain kicked out students when their enrollment cap was reached and transferred less effective teachers to non-evaluated schools. Three years after implementation, the learning gains in privately managed schools failed to compound over time (Romero and Sandefur, 2019). Ultimately, private management of public schools proved to be a mixed bag.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.773+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "33ac835f-8669-4df6-8772-74137e4cd380", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.304, "w": 0.648, "x": 0.176, "y": 0.094 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "many parents to be of higher quality: in Kenya, even poor families were willing to undergo financial hardship to pay for so-called “low cost” private schools (Zuilkowski et al., 2018). Distinguishing the impact of private schools on student learning is generally difficult because of student selection effects: often, students with better off parents or parents more invested in education may be more likely to attend private schools. Beyond purely private schools, many African governments are entering into agreements with private school chains where they receive public resources to educate students at no charge. These public-private partnerships often seek to leverage the physical and human capital of private schools to increase access and learning. The last several years have seen some new work on private schools and public-private partnerships in Sub-Saharan Africa (Appendix Table 15). Most previous work on private schools has taken place in other regions, and to our knowledge, this topic is not covered in previous reviews focused on Africa.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.773+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "82d08778-1416-445a-9bff-4129497c39f7", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.018, "w": 0.022, "x": 0.489, "y": 0.938 }, "kind": "source-note", "text": "21", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Source note", "slug": "source-note", "status": "active", "canonId": "23484952-494b-4a5e-b1ad-550d0d70e948", "version": 1, "description": "Attribution / source / caveat placed at the slide footer. 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Of course, the first step of constructing schools in places where there are no schools is likely an essential condition for further educational investments.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.721+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "3c5fbb5f-46e9-4cdd-a88a-846a7ef3ea0f", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.085, "w": 0.65, "x": 0.175, "y": 0.678 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "As evidence on inputs – including education technology inputs – grows on the continent, its track record is decidedly mixed. Technology proves effective in some cases and not in others, reflecting the education technology findings in high-income countries and the fact that technology is a means to an end rather than an end in itself (Bulman and Fairlie 2016). Public-private partnerships likewise are proving no panacea to education systems in Africa.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.721+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "8e50ebd6-0f4b-4c84-a7dd-5221952f487e", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.085, "w": 0.65, "x": 0.175, "y": 0.337 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "The private school and other non-government school evaluation literature is still nascent in Africa. While there is no compelling evidence that private schools or private management of schools deliver more learning than public schools, the revealed preference of many parents and demonstrated improvement in private schools suggests merit in continuing to examine the issue.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.721+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "9ce88e06-9b14-4a15-9346-7d202c064dfc", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.135, "w": 0.65, "x": 0.175, "y": 0.518 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "The last five years of education and economics research in Africa demonstrate that there are a range of promising ways to continue to expand access to schools and to improve their quality. Earlier reviews of the evidence had little examination of mother tongue instruction programs and inconsistent coverage of structured pedagogy programs, both of which show sizeable impacts on learning. Likewise, a range of teacher policies show promising results, including teacher pay-for-performance programs at the primary level but also non-remunerative interventions, such as teacher coaching and training teaching assistants. School feeding programs appear to be beneficial for both access and learning outcomes.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.721+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "c371330c-04a1-427a-b2b0-902c0f1e0ceb", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.06, "w": 0.65, "x": 0.175, "y": 0.217 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Non-profit school providers are another option, especially in the context of extreme poverty and poor state provision of schooling. In Guinea-Bissau, a non-profit randomly selected villages to provide four-year primary schools to substitute for existing government education (Fazzio et al. 2020).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.721+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "cc63f8b0-fccb-4621-89a5-cc66d2f43f4f", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.018, "w": 0.135, "x": 0.175, "y": 0.448 }, "kind": "title", "text": "6. Discussion", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Title", "slug": "title", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-f7dd-76d9-b848-b1f12bd85cf4", "version": 1, "description": "Slide title or headline." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Headline", "slug": "headline", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fae1-7463-9a7c-d60668eced0d", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "headline", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.721+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "066a7481-e7c2-4425-a573-fc48e47f2bf5", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.018, "w": 0.135, "x": 0.175, "y": 0.495 }, "kind": "title", "text": "6.1 What we learn", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Title", "slug": "title", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-f7dd-76d9-b848-b1f12bd85cf4", "version": 1, "description": "Slide title or headline." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Subtitle", "slug": "subtitle", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb09-739d-900c-815b0d9ac526", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "subtitle", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:44.721+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "72bae610-c3ce-4a5b-942f-5866e25cd56c", "parentComponentId": null } ], "metrics": [], "tools": [ { "tool": { "name": "Audience Definition", "slug": "audience-definition", "status": "active", "bestFor": null, "canonId": "019dd956-7f2a-775d-aeee-ff099bcb7756", "version": 1, "bodyDocId": null, "description": "Six key questions: Who are they? 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Every place and time are different, and so synthesizing effective results is not intended to promote simple wholesale adoption of one program to another context. Achieving high-quality education in Africa will require a host of interventions at each education level – early child education, primary education, secondary education, etc. As a result, policymakers and the researchers who advise them can learn from successful interventions in two key ways. First, most simply, successful interventions in one context provide a starting point for discussions in another context (World Bank, 2018a).19 Would that work here? Why or why not? Second, we can examine the principles behind the success of interventions rather than focusing on specific point estimates (Muralidharan, 2017). Specifically, we can ask what the theory behind the program is, whether the required conditions in a new context hold for that theory to apply, whether the same behavior change would be expected in the new context, based on existing evidence, and whether the program could be well implemented (Bates and Glennerster, 2017). In some cases, a different program design may be more effective at achieving the same change in teacher or student behavior in a new country because of different contextual factors. Certain classes of programs that have been successful across several contexts—like structured pedagogy programs, school feeding programs, school fee elimination programs, or mother tongue instruction programs—may provide starting points for policy discussions in other areas. The education impact evaluation evidence in Africa is shifting from simple tests of what works and what does not to what implementation design is most effective in a given context. 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This is less relevant to the present synthesis of evidence from many countries.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Source note", "slug": "source-note", "status": "active", "canonId": "23484952-494b-4a5e-b1ad-550d0d70e948", "version": 1, "description": "Attribution / source / caveat placed at the slide footer. 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The sum of the percentages is more than 100 since each intervention may target more than one group. This figure includes the 195 studies that passed the eligibility criteria of our search. 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quasi-experimental)...................................................................................................................................................59\nAppendix Table 4: Studies on structured pedagogy and other pedagogical interventions in Africa, 2014-2020 (experimental and quasi-experimental)...........................................................................................................62\nAppendix Table 5: Studies on teacher policies in Africa, 2014-2020 (experimental and quasi-experimental)...................................................................................................................................................67\nAppendix Table 6: Studies on school feeding in Africa, 2014-2020 (experimental and quasi-experimental)...................................................................................................................................................73\nAppendix Table 7: Studies on education technology in Africa, 2014-2020 (experimental and quasi-experimental)...................................................................................................................................................75\nAppendix Table 8: Studies on school construction in Africa, 2014-2020 (experimental and quasi-experimental)...................................................................................................................................................79\nAppendix Table 9: Studies on other inputs in Africa, 2014-2020 (experimental and quasi-experimental)...................................................................................................................................................81\nAppendix Table 10: Studies on cash transfer in Africa, 2014-2020 (experimental and quasi-experimental)...................................................................................................................................................83\nAppendix Table 11: Studies on school grants in Africa, 2014-2020 (experimental and quasi-experimental)...................................................................................................................................................86\nAppendix Table 12: Studies on eliminating school fees in Africa, 2014-2020 (experimental and quasi-experimental)...................................................................................................................................................87\nAppendix Table 13: Studies on early childhood development and education in Africa, 2014-2020 (experimental and quasi-experimental)...........................................................................................................92\nAppendix Table 14: Studies on girls' education in Africa, 2014-2020 (experimental and quasi-experimental)...................................................................................................................................................95\nAppendix Table 15: 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What are the returns to quality? There is much less evidence on this in the region, although evidence from high-income countries does show returns to higher quality education (Card and Krueger, 1992). Most studies on the quality", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:55.399+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "22218c69-04f6-427f-af53-6b0d43700202", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.35, "w": 0.78, "x": 0.11, "y": 0.5 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "To expand beyond wage earners, Lehmann-Uschner (2020) estimates the returns to education for self-employed market vendors in rural western Uganda, finding a return of 7 percent to formal education. Kavuma et al. (2015) impute wages for both the self-employed and the wage earners in Uganda, and estimate a return to schooling of 16 percent using a national household survey. Jones et al. (2018) use expenditures per contributing family member in the household rather than wages over three survey rounds in Mozambique and find a return of 10.5 percent points, remarkably similar to the Africa-wide estimate in Psacharopoulos and Patrinos (2018). As access to lower levels of education has risen, they find falling returns, so that “workers today must accumulate more years of schooling to achieve the same expected return as in the past.” This is consistent with recent findings in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kuepié and Nordman, 2016) and. While there is some variation across estimates, that is to be expected across different countries, time periods, and samples. Furthermore, Serneels et al. (2016) show using Tanzanian data that estimates vary substantively and significantly (between 6 and 14 percentage points) depending on how the survey measuring wages and education is designed. A few recent papers have explored returns with respect to different outcomes. Woldehanna and Araya (2017) use longitudinal data in Ethiopia to show that access to early child education increases the odds of completing secondary school by a quarter. These estimates suggest significant returns to an additional year of education, including among informal sector workers.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:55.399+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "6744c5bb-8f9a-4f69-bc04-2e6d97b65c95", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.2, "w": 0.78, "x": 0.11, "y": 0.33 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "Recent studies have sought to address each of these challenges in individual countries. In order to overcome self-selection issues, Samahiya (2020) used the compulsory education policy from South Africa in 1996 as a source of exogenous variation in schooling attainment and finds returns of 15.7 percent in monthly earnings, significantly higher than those from simple Mincerian estimates. In the north African country of Tunisia, Pellicer (2018) exploits education policy changes to estimate returns (specifically on the likelihood of public sector employment), showing that they have decreased over time but remain large, with the youngest cohorts seeing a 4 percentage point rise in public sector employment with an additional year of education.", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:55.399+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "7ee0a2a3-452e-4efe-ab3d-2c36e85f3ce6", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.25, "w": 0.78, "x": 0.11, "y": 0.13 }, "kind": "paragraph", "text": "These two broad, cross-regional analyses—Psacharopoulos and Patrinos (2018) and Peet et al. (2015) – find estimates of returns to education in Africa between 9 and 11 percent. This type of estimate of the rate of return to schooling in Africa presents at least two challenges. First, Mincerian regressions typically do not account for the fact that characteristics that are often unobserved to the econometrician—such as innate ability, income level in childhood, social networks, parental motivation, or liquidity constraints—may affect both an individual’s years of schooling and influence her adult earnings, limiting the causal interpretation of these estimates. Second, most estimates of the returns to education only include wage workers, which poses a particular problem in Sub-Saharan Africa, where fewer than 24 percent of workers receive wages or salaries. In five countries across the region (Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Guinea, and Niger), that number is less than 10 percent (Appendix Figure 1).", "attrs": null, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "5f2affc0-941d-4d07-959d-4bfc1930cea4", "version": 1, "description": "Single prose block in the body of a slide." }, "tool": null, "subkind": { "name": "Paragraph", "slug": "paragraph", "status": "active", "canonId": "019de52c-fb80-75af-aa5c-a7a4bfac2433", "version": 1, "description": null }, "framework": null }, "subkind": "paragraph", "groupRole": null, "confidence": null, "extraction": { "at": "2026-05-02 18:35:55.399+00", "model": "google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview-20260303", "runId": null, "seconds": null, "promptVersion": null }, "componentId": "8ae0a41f-6a07-4968-bdb4-17c87cbe03e0", "parentComponentId": null }, { "bbox": { "h": 0.05, "w": 0.78, "x": 0.11, "y": 0.87 }, "kind": "source-note", "text": "20 The World Development Indicators report 24 percent for 2019 and 20 percent in 2000 (with intervening years between those two numbers). Sandefur (2019) highlighted this issue of low proportions of wage workers and the ensuing challenge of interpreting returns.", "attrs": { "numbered": true }, "canon": { "kind": { "name": "Source note", "slug": "source-note", "status": "active", "canonId": "23484952-494b-4a5e-b1ad-550d0d70e948", "version": 1, "description": "Attribution / source / caveat placed at the slide footer. 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In Ghana and Kenya, Valerio et al. (2016) find a positive association between reading ability and adult earnings, although the relationship remains statistically significant only in Ghana once they control for years of schooling. Using data from 53 countries, including many from Sub-Saharan Africa, Oye et al. (2016) find that schooling for women has positive returns on her children's survival, but that schooling together with learning yields significantly higher gains. An additional year of female schooling reduces under-5 mortality by 6 deaths per 1,000, whereas those reductions are two-thirds larger in the countries with the highest learning relative to those with the lowest learning. 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